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Vaccine Work

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Why This Work Matters

Vaccines have been a powerful tool to reduce infectious disease inequities experienced by Indigenous peoples. Tribal communities in the Southwest U.S. have been longstanding partners in clinical trials that have helped not only their communities, but generated evidence for vaccines recommended nationally and globally. 

Our research helps ensure that vaccines are supported by local evidence, culturally grounded partnerships, and pathways to equitable access. 

Vaccine Research and Trial Capabilities

The Center for Indigenous Health Infectious Disease Prevention Team partners with communities to understand and prevent infectious diseases across the lifespan. This work began in the 1980s when Dr. Raymond Reid, one of the first Navajo physicians trained in public health, and Dr. Mathu Santosham (CIH Director Emeritus) led landmark studies in partnership with the White Mountain Apache Tribe that proved the efficacy of oral rehydration solution to prevent severe dehydration and death related to gastroenteritis. This was followed by pivotal studies that proved the efficacy of vaccines against Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib), Streptococcus pneumoniae, and rotavirus disease, which affected Native children at higher rates.  

Our vaccine work includes surveillance, clinical trials, impact evaluations, and implementation studies that inform vaccine policy and support equitable health outcomes. 

Explore Infectious Disease Prevention Focus Areas
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Knowledge Center 

Vaccine Research Areas

Epidemiology

We conduct epidemiologic studies to describe disease burden, transmission, bacterial carriage prevalence, and risk and protective factors for carriage and disease in Indigenous communities.

Clinical Trials

We partner with communities to evaluate vaccine candidates and other interventions through rigorously conducted clinical trials. 

Impact Evaluations

We assess the real-world effects of vaccines and other interventions on disease burden and health outcomes. 

Immunization Policy and Implementation

We use research findings to inform vaccine policy and support effective, equitable implementation. 

Epidemiology/Carriage 
Studies		Clinical TrialsImpact EvaluationsImmunization Policy
COVIDXXX
H. influenzae type bXXXX
RotavirusXX
RSVXXXX
S. PneumoniaeXXXX

Featured Studies

Explore examples of how our vaccine research has contributed to improved health outcomes and informed public health action.

HibVax

A Phase IV clinical trial of two licensed Hib-containing vaccines to inform vaccine policy for prevention of Hib disease in Indigenous infants in the United States

BoostVax

A multi-site initiative to strengthen provider confidence in vaccine communication and improve vaccine uptake in Indigenous communities.

VaxUp

A community-based study focused on understanding barriers to improving immunization coverage in the Navajo Nation.

RSV SuNA

A surveillance study to measure the burden and types of viral respiratory illness in patients with acute respiratory infection in the Navajo Nation, White Mountain Apache Tribal Lands, and Alaska that provided a platform for impact evaluation when prevention products became available. The findings helped inform the best ways to prevent illness and informed vaccine policy.

Read more.

Working in Partnership With Communities

Our clinical trials are grounded in community priorities and local partnership. We work closely with Tribal Institutional Review Boards, Health Boards, Tribal Councils, and collaborating facilities to conduct culturally congruent research that protects the rights and privacy of participants.

Community input and proposal development

Community priorities guide study ideas, design, and feasibility.

Trial implementation and conduct

Local staff are trained in research ethics, Good Clinical Practice, HIPAA compliance, specimen collection, and other core procedures.

Review, approval, and results sharing

We maintain ongoing communication with tribal leadership and share results in ways that are culturally and contextually relevant.

Selected Publications

These publications highlight key studies and findings from our vaccine research program.

View All Publications

Learn More About Our Vaccine Work

Explore individual study pages and selected publications to learn more about the team’s work, partnerships, and impact.

Explore All Infectious Disease Pages
Contact the Vaccine Team

Selected Publications List

Pneumo 
  1. Sutcliffe CG, Sergent VM, Yazzie D, Brasinikas G, Christensen L, Clark M, Cowboy W, Dixon SL, Grant LR, Harker-Jones M, Hurley C, Iralu JV, McAuley JB, Miernyk K, Montanez P, Rice A, Romancito E, Salabye C, Simons-Petrusa B, Pitalua J, Tenequer V, Thompson P, Tsingine M, VanDeRiet D, Weatherholtz RC, Santosham M, Hammitt LL. Post-COVID rebound in invasive pneumococcal disease driven by resurgence of serotype 4 among American Indian individuals in the Southwest United States. J Infect Dis. 2026 Jun 4:jiag285. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiag285. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 42246152.
  2. Hammitt LL, Buchwald UK, McCauley J, Shekar T, Fu W, Cheon K, Sterling T, Tamms G, Banniettis N, Musey L, LeBlanc JJ, Weatherholtz R, Riley DP, Denny E, Tso C, Roessler K, Santosham M. Randomized Phase 3 Trial Evaluating the Safety, Tolerability, and Immunogenicity of V114, a 15-Valent PCV, Followed by PPSV23 6 Months Later (PNEU-DAY): Subgroup Analysis in Adults 18-49 Years of Age Enrolled at Center for Indigenous Health Sites. Vaccines (Basel). 2025 Dec 19;14(1):3. doi: 10.3390/vaccines14010003. PMID: 41600920; PMCID: PMC12846691. 
  3. Sutcliffe CG, Sergent VM, Azarian T, Becenti LR, Cella E, Honie EF, Johnston C, Pitalua J, Roessler K, Urdaneta-Páez V, Weatherholtz RC, Zylstra S, Hammitt LL. Pneumococcal Carriage Among Indigenous Children in the Southwest United States in 2022-2023. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2026 Jan 1;45(1):89-95. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000005021. Epub 2025 Nov 26. PMID: 41292041.
  4. Grant LR, Sutcliffe CG, Littlepage S, Alexander-Parrish R, Becenti L, Isturiz RE, Jacobs MR, O’Brien KL, Riley DP, Santosham M, Tso C, Vidal JE, Weatherholtz RC, Hammitt LL. Persistence of vaccine serotype carriage and differences in pneumococcal carriage by lab method and sample type in Indigenous individuals in the Southwest USA. J Infect Dis. 2025 Feb 26:jiaf091. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jiaf091. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 40036341.
  5. Sergent VM, Sutcliffe CG, Yazzie D, Brasinikas G, Brown LB, Christensen L, Clichee D, Damon S, Dixon SL, Grant LR, Harker-Jones M, McAuley JB, Montanez P, Parker Riley D, Reasonover A, Rice A, Romancito E, Salabye C, Simons-Petrusa B, Tenequer VL, Thompson P, Tsingine M, Tso C, Weatherholtz RC, Hammitt LL. Impact of Pneumococcal Conjugate Vaccines on Otitis Media among American Indian/Alaska Native Children in the Southwest United States. J Pediatric Infect Dis Soc. 2025 Mar 12;14(3):piaf013. doi: 10.1093/jpids/piaf013. PMID: 39957289.
  6. Cella E, Sutcliffe CG, Grant LR, Tso C, Weatherholtz RC, Littlepage S, Becenti L, Jubair M, Simons BC, Harker-Jones M, Reid R, Yazzie D, Santosham M, O’Brien KL, Hammitt LL, Azarian T. Streptococcus pneumoniae serotype 3 population structure in the era of conjugate vaccines, 2001-2018. Microb Genom. 2024 Mar;10(3):001196. doi: 10.1099/mgen.0.001196. PMID: 38498591; PMCID: PMC10963907.
  7. Hammitt LL, Quinn D, Janczewska E, Pasquel FJ, Tytus R, Rajender Reddy K, Abarca K, Khaertynova IM, Dagan R, McCauley J, Cheon K, Pedley A, Sterling T, Tamms G, Musey L, Buchwald UK. Immunogenicity, safety, and tolerability of V114, a 15-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, in immunocompetent adults aged 18-49 years with or without risk factors for pneumococcal disease: a randomized phase 3 trial (PNEU-DAY). Open Forum Infect Dis. 2021 Dec. doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofab605. PMID: 35146039; PMCID: PMC8826015.
  8. Hammitt LL, Campbell JC, Borys D, Weatherholtz RC, Reid R, Goklish N, Moulton LH, Traskine M, Song Y, Swinnen K, Santosham M, O’Brien KL. Efficacy, safety and immunogenicity of a pneumococcal protein-based vaccine co-administered with 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine against acute otitis media in young children: A phase IIb randomized study. Vaccine 2019 Dec 3; doi: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2019.09.076.
  9. Sutcliffe CG, Grant LR, Cloessner E, Klugman KP, Vidal JE, Reid R, Colelay J, Weatherholtz RC, Chochua S, Jacobs MR, Santosham M, O’Brien KL, Hammitt LL. Impact of laboratory methods, colonization density and age on detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae in the nasopharynx. Am J Epidemiol 2019 Sep 11; doi: 10.1093/aje/kwz191.
  10. Grant LR, Hammitt LL, O’Brien SE, Weatherholtz RC, Reid R, Santosham M, O’Brien KL. Impact of the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine on carriage among American Indians. Pediatr Infect Dis J 2016; 35:907-914.
  11. Weatherholtz R, Millar EV, Moulton LH, Reid R, Rudolph K, Santosham M, O’Brien KL. Invasive pneumococcal disease a decade after pneumococcal conjugate vaccine use in an American Indian population at high risk for disease. Clin Infect Dis. 2010 May 1;50(9):1238-46. doi: 10.1086/651680. PMID: 20367225.
  12. Bliss SJ, Larzalere-Hinton F, Lacapa R, Eagle KR, Frizzell F, Parkinson A, Reid R, Craig M, Santosham M, O’Brien KL. Invasive pneumococcal disease among White Mountain Apache adults, 1991-2005. Arch Intern Med. 2008 Apr 14;168(7):749-55. doi: 10.1001/archinte.168.7.749. PMID: 18413558.
  13. Millar EV, O’Brien KL, Watt JP, Bronsdon MA, Dallas J, Whitney CG, Reid R, Santosham M. Effect of community-wide conjugate pneumococcal vaccine use in infancy on nasopharyngeal carriage through 3 years of age: a cross-sectional study in a high-risk population. Clin Infect Dis. 2006 Jul 1;43(1):8-15. doi: 10.1086/504802. Epub 2006 May 18. PMID: 16758412.
  14. O’Brien KL, Shaw J, Weatherholtz R, Reid R, Watt J, Croll J, Dagan R, Parkinson AJ, Santosham M. Epidemiology of invasive Streptococcus pneumoniae among Navajo children in the era before use of conjugate pneumococcal vaccines, 1989-1996. Am J Epidemiol. 2004 Aug 1;160(3):270-8. doi: 10.1093/aje/kwh191. PMID: 15258000.
  15. O’Brien KL, Moulton LH, Reid R, Weatherholtz R, Oski J, Brown L, Kumar G, Parkinson A, Hu D, Hackell J, Chang I, Kohberger R, Siber G, Santosham M. Efficacy and safety of seven-valent conjugate pneumococcal vaccine in American Indian children: group randomised trial. Lancet. 2003 Aug 2;362(9381):355-61. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(03)14022-6. PMID: 12907008.
  16. Benin AL, O’Brien KL, Watt JP, Reid R, Zell ER, Katz S, Donaldson C, Parkinson A, Schuchat A, Santosham M, Whitney CG. Effectiveness of the 23-valent polysaccharide vaccine against invasive pneumococcal disease in Navajo adults. J Infect Dis. 2003 Jul 1;188(1):81-9. doi: 10.1086/375782. Epub 2003 Jun 23. PMID: 12825175.
RSV 
  1. Hartman RM, Sutcliffe CG, Keck JW, Atwell JE, Burrage A, Campbell AP, Chappell J, Dawood FS, Desnoyers C, Dobson J, Espinoza JS, Garcia S, Halasa N, Honie E, Little V, McAuley J, McMorrow ML, Menechof K, Parker Riley D, Prill MM, Swango-Wilson A, Torkelson L, VanDeRiet D, Singleton RJ, Hammitt LL. RSV-Associated Hospitalizations among American Indian and Alaska Native Children in Alaska and the Southwest United States, 2019-2023. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2026 July 17;15(8):piag058. doi: 10.1093/jpids/piag058. PMID: 42466604. 
  2. Hammitt LL, Espinoza JS, Keck JW, Hartman RM, Alvarez-Colon G, Burrage A, Campbell AP, Cardona F, Chappell J, Christensen L, Dawood FS, Desnoyers C, Dobson J, Halasa N, Hurley C, Larsen R, McAuley JB, McMorrow ML, Menachof K, Prill M, Oxley L, Riley DP, Ritchie N, Sandoval M, Singleton RJ, Sutcliffe CG. Nirsevimab is Effective Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus-Associated Hospitalization Among American Indian and Alaska Native Children in Their First and Second RSV Seasons in Alaska and the Southwest United States, 2023-2024. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2025 Dec 1;44(12):e464-e467. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000004942. Epub 2025 Oct 17. PMID: 41104899; PMCID: PMC12594112.
  3. Hartman RM, Atwell JE, Tso C, Becenti L, Brown LB, Karron RA, Kellywood K, Martin S, O’Brien KL, Weatherholtz RC, Hammitt LL. Impact of RSV Prevention in Infancy on Prevalence of Asthma Among 9-14-Year-old Native American Children in the Southwest United States. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2025 Apr 3. doi: 10.1097/INF.0000000000004818. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 40208934.
  4. Atwell JE, Hartman RM, Parker D, Taylor K, Brown LB, Sandoval M, Ritchie N, Desnoyers C, Wilson AS, Hammes M, Tiesinga J, Halasa N, Langley G, Prill MM, Bruden D, Close R, Moses J, Karron RA, Santosham M, Singleton RJ, Hammitt LL. RSV Among American Indian and Alaska Native Children: 2019 to 2020. Pediatrics. 2023 Jul 14:e2022060435. doi: 10.1542/peds.2022-060435. PMID: 37449336.
  5. Hammitt LL, Dagan R, Yuan Y, Baca Cots M, Bosheva M, Madhi SA, Muller WJ, Zar HJ, Brooks D, Grenham A, Wählby Hamrén U, Mankad VS, Ren P, Takas T, Abram ME, Leach A, Griffin MP, Villafana T; MELODY Study Group. Nirsevimab for prevention of RSV in healthy late-preterm and term infants. N Engl J Med. 2022 Mar 3; 386:837-846. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2110275. PMID: 35235276.
  6. Madhi SA, Polack FP, Piedra PA, Munoz FM, Trenholme AA, Simões EAF, Swamy GK, Agrawal S, Ahmed K, August A, Baqui AH, Calvert A, Chen J, Cho I, Cotton MF, Cutland CL, Englund JA, Fix A, Gonik B, Hammitt L, Heath PT, de Jesus JN, Jones CE, Khalil A, Kimberlin DW, Libster R, Llapur CJ, Lucero M, Pérez Marc G, Marshall HS, Masenya MS, Martinón-Torres F, Meece JK, Nolan TM, Osman A, Perrett KP, Plested JS, Richmond PC, Snape MD, Shakib JH, Shinde V, Stoney T, Thomas DN, Tita AT, Varner MW, Vatish M, Vrbicky K, Wen J, Zaman K, Zar HJ, Glenn GM, Fries LF; Prepare Study Group. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccination during Pregnancy and Effects in Infants. N Engl J Med. 2020 Jul 30;383(5):426-439. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1908380. PMID: 32726529; PMCID: PMC7299433.
  7. O’Brien KL, Chandran A, Weatherholtz R, Jafri HS, Griffin MP, Bellamy T, Millar EV, Jensen KM, Harris BS, Reid R, Moulton LH, Losonsky GA, Karron RA, Santosham M; Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Prevention study group. Efficacy of motavizumab for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus disease in healthy Native American infants: a phase 3 randomised double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Infect Dis. 2015 Dec;15(12):1398-408. doi: 10.1016/S1473-3099(15)00247-9. Epub 2015 Nov 4. PMID: 26511956.
  8. Bockova J, O’Brien KL, Oski J, Croll J, Reid R, Weatherholtz RC, Santosham M, Karron RA. Respiratory syncytial virus infection in Navajo and White Mountain Apache children. Pediatrics. 2002 Aug;110(2 Pt 1):e20. doi: 10.1542/peds.110.2.e20. PMID: 12165619.
COVID
  1. Lutz CS, Sutcliffe CG, Keck JW, Hartman RM, Desnoyers C, Swango-Wilson A, Burrage AB, Campbell AP, Christensen L, Close RM, Damon S, Dobson J, Garcia S, Halasa N, Honie E, Little V, McMorrow ML, Parker D, Prill MM, Richards J, Va P, Veazie M, VanDeRiet D, Yazzie D, Singleton RJ, Hammitt LL. Incidence Rates of COVID-19-Associated Hospitalization and Risk Factors for Severe Disease Among American Indian and Alaska Native Persons in the Southwest USA and Alaska. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities. 2025 Jul 21. doi: 10.1007/s40615-025-02492-9. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 40691741.
  2. Lutz CS, Hartman RM, Sandoval M, Burrage AB, Christensen L, Close RM, Damon S, Fairlie TA, Hagen MB, Kugler AM, Laeyendecker O, Honie E, Little V, Mostafa HH, Parker D, Richards J, Ritchie N, Roessler KC, Saydah S, Taylor K, Va P, VanDeRiet D, Yazzie D, Hammitt LL, Sutcliffe CG. Clinical characterization of acute COVID-19 and Post-COVID-19 Conditions 3 months following infection: A cohort study among Indigenous adults and children in the Southwestern United States. PLOS Glob Public Health. 2025 Mar 18;5(3):e0004204. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0004204. PMID: 40100819; PMCID: PMC11918431.
  3. Smith CP, Hartman RM, Kugler AM, Little V, Baker OR, Fairlie TA, Fernandez RE, Hagen MB, Honie E, Laeyendecker O, Midgley CM, Parker D, Sandoval M, Takahashi S, Hammitt LL, Sutcliffe CG. The trajectory of antibody responses one year following SARS-CoV-2 infection among Indigenous individuals in the Southwest United States. Viruses. 2024 Oct 5;16(10):1573. doi: 10.3390/v16101573. PMID: 39459907; PMCID: PMC11512241.
  4. Lutz CS, Hartman RM, Vigil DE, Britton A, Burrage AB, Campbell AP, Close RM, Desnoyers C, Dobson J, Garcia S, Halasa N, Honie E, Kobayashi M, McMorrow M, Mostafa HH, Parker D, Pohl K, Prill MM, Richards J, Roesller KC, Sutcliffe CG, Taylor K, Swango-Wilson A, Va P, Verani JR, Singleton RJ, Hammitt LL. Effectiveness of COVID-19 mRNA vaccines in preventing COVID-19-associated outpatient visits and hospitalizations among American Indian and Alaska Native persons, January–November, 2021: a case-control analysis using surveillance data. Open Forum Infect Dis. 2023 Mar 27;10(4):ofad172. doi: 10.1093/ofid/ofad172. eCollection 2023 Apr. PMID: 37089780. 
  5. Sullivan DJ, Gebo KA, Shoham S, Bloch EM, Lau B, Shenoy AG, Mosnaim GS, Gniadek TJ, Fukuta Y, Patel B, Heath SL, Levine AC, Meisenberg BR, Spivak ES, Anjan S, Huaman MA, Blair JE, Currier JS, Paxton JH, Gerber JM, Petrini JR, Broderick PB, Rausch W, Cordisco ME, Hammel J, Greenblatt B, Cluzet VC, Cruser D, Oei K, Abinante M, Hammitt LL, Sutcliffe CG, Forthal DN, Zand MS, Cachay ER, Raval JS, Kassaye SG, Foster EC, Roth M, Marshall CE, Yarava A, Lane K, McBee NA, Gawad AL, Karlen N, Singh A, Ford DE, Jabs DA, Appel LJ, Shade DM, Ehrhardt S, Baksh SN, Laeyendecker O, Pekosz A, Klein SL, Casadevall A, Tobian AAR, Hanley DF. Early outpatient treatment for COVID-19 with convalescent plasma. N Engl J Med. 2022 Mar 30. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2119657. PMID: 35353960. 
  6. Moreira ED Jr, Kitchin N, Xu X, Dychter SS, Lockhart S, Gurtman A, Perez JL, Zerbini C, Dever ME, Jennings TW, Brandon DM, Cannon KD, Koren MJ, Denham DS, Berhe M, Fitz-Patrick D, Hammitt LL, Klein NP, Nell H, Keep G, Wang X, Koury K, Swanson KA, Cooper D, Lu C, Türeci Ö, Lagkadinou E, Tresnan DB, Dormitzer PR, Şahin U, Gruber WC, Jansen KU; C4591031 Clinical Trial Group. Safety and efficacy of a third dose of BNT162b Covid-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2022 Mar 23. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2200674. PMID: 35320659.
  7. Haroz EE, Kemp C, Pocock K, O’Keefe V, Walls M, Wilson D, Christensen L, Barlow A, Hammitt L. Nurturing innovation at the roots: The success of COVID-19 vaccination in American Indian and Alaska Native communities. Am J Public Health. 2022 Mar; 112:383-387. Doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa2110275. PMID: 35196058. 
  8. Thomas SJ, Moreira ED Jr, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A, Lockhart S, Perez JL, Pérez Marc G, Polack FP, Zerbini C, Bailey R, Swanson KA, Xu X, Roychoudhury S, Koury K, Bouguermouh S, Kalina WV, Cooper D, Frenck RW Jr, Hammitt LL, Türeci Ö, Nell H, Schaefer A, Ünal S, Yang Q, Liberator P, Tresnan DB, Mather S, Dormitzer PR, Şahin U, Gruber WC, Jansen KU; C4591001 Clinical Trial Group.  Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA Covid-19 vaccine through 6 months. N Engl J Med. 2021 Nov 4. doi: 10:1056/NEJMoa2110345. PMID: 34525277.
  9. Polack FP, Thomas SJ, Kitchin N, Absalon J, Gurtman A, Lockhart S, Perez JL, Pérez Marc G, Moreira ED, Zerbini C, Bailey R, Swanson KA, Roychoudhury S, Koury K, Li P, Kalina WV, Cooper D, Frenck RW Jr, Hammitt LL, Türeci Ö, Nell H, Schaefer A, Ünal S, Tresnan DB, Mather S, Dormitzer PR, Şahin U, Jansen KU, Gruber WC; C4591001 Clinical Trial Group. Safety and efficacy of the BNT162b2 mRNA COVID-19 vaccine. N Engl J Med. 2020 Dec; 381:2603-2615. 

Hib

  1. Jackson BD, Miernyk K, Steinberg J, Beaudry J, Christensen L, Chukwuma U, Clichee D, Damon S, Farrenkopf BA, Hurley C, Luna J, Simons B, Singleton R, Thomas M, VanDeRiet D, Weatherholtz R, Zeger S, Zylstra S, Keck J, Hammitt LL. Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine immunogenicity in American Indian/Alaska Native infants. Pediatrics. 2024 Sep 24:e2024066658. doi: 10.1542/peds.2024-066658. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 39314177.
  2. Millar EV, O’Brien KL, Levine OS, Kvamme S, Reid R, Santosham M. Toward elimination of Haemophilus influenzae type B carriage and disease among high-risk American Indian children. Am J Public Health. 2000 Oct;90(10):1550-4. doi: 10.2105/ajph.90.10.1550. PMID: 11029987; PMCID: PMC1446357.
  3. Takala AK, Santosham M, Almeido-Hill J, Wolff M, Newcomer W, Reid R, Käyhty H, Esko E, Mäkelä PH. Vaccination with Haemophilus influenzae type b meningococcal protein conjugate vaccine reduces oropharyngeal carriage of Haemophilus influenzae type b among American Indian children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1993 Jul;12(7):593-9. doi: 10.1097/00006454-199307000-00010. PMID: 8346004.
  4. Santosham M, Wolff M, Reid R, Hohenboken M, Bateman M, Goepp J, Cortese M, Sack D, Hill J, Newcomer W, et al. The efficacy in Navajo infants of a conjugate vaccine consisting of Haemophilus influenzae type b polysaccharide and Neisseria meningitidis outer-membrane protein complex. N Engl J Med. 1991 Jun 20;324(25):1767-72. doi: 10.1056/NEJM199106203242503. PMID: 1903846.
  5. Santosham M, Reid R, Ambrosino DM, Wolff MC, Almeido-Hill J, Priehs C, Aspery KM, Garrett S, Croll L, Foster S, et al. Prevention of Haemophilus influenzae type b infections in high-risk infants treated with bacterial polysaccharide immune globulin. N Engl J Med. 1987 Oct 8;317(15):923-9. doi: 10.1056/NEJM198710083171503. PMID: 2442610.

Oral Rehydration Solution

  1. Grant LR, Watt JP, Weatherholtz RC, Moulton LH, Reid R, Santosham M, O’Brien KL. Efficacy of a pentavalent human-bovine reassortant rotavirus vaccine against rotavirus gastroenteritis among American Indian children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2012 Feb;31(2):184-8. doi: 10.1097/INF.0b013e3182435afe. PMID: 22252206.
  2. Menon S, Santosham M, Reid R, Almeido-Hill J, Sack RB, Comstock GW. Rotavirus diarrhoea in Apache children: a case-control study. Int J Epidemiol. 1990 Sep;19(3):715-21. doi: 10.1093/ije/19.3.715. PMID: 2262270.
  3. Santosham M, Yolken RH, Wyatt RG, Bertrando R, Black RE, Spira WM, Sack RB. Epidemiology of rotavirus diarrhea in a prospectively monitored American Indian population. J Infect Dis. 1985 Oct;152(4):778-83. doi: 10.1093/infdis/152.4.778. PMID: 2995503.
  4. Santosham M, Burns B, Nadkarni V, Foster S, Pharm D, Garrett S, Croll L, O’Donovan J.C, Pathak R, Sack RB.  Oral rehydration therapy for acute diarrhea in ambulatory children in the U.S:  a double-blind comparison of four different solutions.  Pediatrics 1985; 76(2):159-66.
  5. Santosham M, Foster S, Garrett S, Croll L, Evans S, Spira WM, Black RE. Outpatient use of oral rehydration solutions in Apache population: effect of instructions on preparation and contamination. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr. 1984 Nov;3(5):687-91. doi: 10.1097/00005176-198411000-00008. PMID: 6389814.
JHU CIH Efficacy StudiesYears
Hib – infants1988-1990
PCV7 – infants 1997-2000
Rotavirus vaccine (Rotateq) – infants2002-2004
RSV monoclonal antibody – infants2004-2010
Pneumococcal common protein vaccine – infants2012-2016
RSV maternal immunization – pregnant women 2017-2018
15-Valent PCV – adults2018-2020
RSV enhanced monoclonal antibody – infants2019-present
COVID-19 mRNA vaccine 2020-2022
HibVax2022-2023
31-Valent PCV 2025-2026

 [LH1]Update

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